type of regulator can be represented as an op amp config-

ured as non-inverting amplifier and a fixed DC Voltage

(V

op amp is its extra-large output transistor that only sources

current. In terms of its non-inverting configuration, the output

voltage equals V

Utilize the following equation for adjusting the output to a

particular voltage:

Choose R

jection, noise and power consumption.

Similarity in the output capabilities exists between op amps

and linear regulators. Just as rail-to-rail output op amps

allow their output voltage to approach the supply voltage,

low dropout regulators (LDOs) allow their output voltage to

operate close to the input voltage. Both achieve this by the

configuration of their output transistors. Standard op amps

and regulator outputs are at the source (or emitter) of the

output transistor. Rail-to-rail op amp and LDO regulator out-

puts are at the drain (or collector) of the output transistor.

This replaces the threshold (or diode drop) limitations on the

output with the less restrictive source-to-drain (or V

tations. There is a trade-off, of course. The output imped-

ance become significantly higher, thus providing a critically

lower pole when combined with the capacitive load. That’s

why rail-to-rail op amps are usually poor at driving capacitive

loads and recommend a series output resistor when doing

so. LDOs require the same series resistance except that the

internal resistance of the output capacitor will usually suffice.

Refer to the output capacitance section for more information.

Output Capacitance

The LDO is specifically designed to employ ceramic output

capacitors as low as 2.2µF. Ceramic capacitors below 10µF

offer significant cost and space savings, along with high

frequency noise filtering. Higher values and other types and

of capacitor may be used, but their equivalent series resis-

tance (ESR) should be maintained below 0.5

Ω

Ceramic capacitor of the value required by the LDO are

available in the following dielectric types: Z5U, Y5V, X5R and

X7R. The Z5U and Y5V types exhibit a 50% or more drop in

capacitance value as their temperature increases from 25˚C,

an important consideration. The X5R generally maintain their

for their tighter tolerance of 10% over temperature.

Ceramic capacitors pose a challenge because of their rela-

tively low ESR. Like most other LDOs, the LDO relies on a

zero in the frequency response to compensate against ex-

cessive phase shift in the regulator’s feedback loop. If the

phase shift reaches 360˚ (i.e.; becomes positive), the regu-

lator will oscillate. This compensation usually resides in the

zero generated by the combination of the output capacitor

with its equivalent series resistance (ESR). The zero is

intended to cancel the effects of the pole generated by the

load capacitance (C

tion of the load resistance (R

(R

capacitors is that the zero it generates can be too high in

frequency for the pole that it’s intended to compensate. The

LM4817 overcomes this challenge by internally generating a

strategically placed zero.

Figure 4 shows a basic model for the linear regulator that

helps describe what happens to the output signal as it is

processed through its feedback loop; that is, describe its

loop gain (LG). The LG includes two main transfer functions:

the error amplifier and the load. The error amplifier provides

voltage gain and a dominant pole, while the load provides a

zero and a pole. The LG of the model in Figure 3 is described

by the following equation:

The first term of the above equation expresses the voltage

gain (numerator) and a single pole role-off (denominator) of

200781B6

FIGURE 3. Regulator Topology Simplified

200781B7

FIGURE 4. Simplified Model of Regulator

Loop Gain Components

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